|
|
|
Esta matéria está concorrendo no concurso de causos e matérias com a centena - 093 CIANOBACTÉRIAS,
CARACTERÍSTICAS GERAIS Cianobactérias
são um dos grupos de organismos mais antigos do mundo, e por isso,
são também extremamente adaptáveis. Podem viver com pouquíssima
luz, e suportar grandes oscilações de temperatura e salinidade. O
seu mecanismo de fotossíntese incorpora um sistema que permite
efetuar a oxidação da água, tendo como consequência a libertação
de oxigênio - representam 25% da produção total de oxigênio de
nosso planeta. Dentro
deste grande grupo, algumas das espécies fotossintetizantes são
também, cumulativamente, heterotróficas, outras anoxigénicas,
mantêm-se obrigatoriamente anaeróbias e ainda existem as aeróbias,
que possuem todo o equipamento enzimático para efetuarem a respiração
celular. IMPORTÂNCIA
ECOLÓGICA E ECONÔMICA As
cianofíceas são importantes ecologicamente como constituintes do
plâncton, seja ele marinho ou dulcícola. Nas cadeias alimentares,
ocupam a posição de produtores primários, geralmente servindo de
alimento para microscustáceos; na formação de um novo ecossistema,
são colonizadores primários (organismos pioneiros). As
toxinas liberadas por elas muitas vezes mantêm algum tipo de equilíbrio
ecológico e as colocam numa posição em que isso é usado em relações
de simbiose, juntamente com sua atividade autotrófica e a
capacidade de fixar Nitrogênio. Economicamente,
mantêm a umidade e a estabilidade mecânica do solo e são
utilizadas na alimentação em alguns países. PRODUÇÃO, PROPRIEDADE E SIGNIFICÂNCIA PARA A SAÚDE PÚBLICA DAS TOXINAS CIANOBACTERIANAS Em
todos os gêneros de cianobactérias existem algumas espécies
capazes de produzir potentes toxinas uma delas as microcistinas, que
são hepatotoxinas. Intoxicações ocasionais de animais
selvagens e domésticos têm sido reportadas em todo o mundo. As
toxinas das cianobactérias podem também representar risco a saúde
humana, no Brasil os casos são ligadas à pacientes hemofílicos,
onde foram encontradas as microcistinas na água de diálise. Estudos
estão sendo realizados para que se estabeleça fatos a respeito de
efeitos ambientais, fisiológicos e regulação bioquímica da produção
dessas toxinas. Os
animais aquáticos estão sujeitos a intoxicação pela microcistina
em valores letais e subletais. As intoxicações subletais são
importantes, porque dessa maneira as toxinas podem se acumular na
cadeia alimentar sendo transferida entre os seus membros. Dentre os
animais aquáticos susceptíveis estão os moluscos, crustáceos e
os peixes. Essas toxinas podem também estar presentes em reservatórios
utilizados para abastecer de água a população.
Os
moluscos apresentam tolerância à toxina. Nos crustáceos, que também
apresentam tolerância à toxina o clearence, isto é a “depuração”
da toxina ocorre lentamente. Nos
peixes, as mortes em sua maior parte não podem ser atribuídas única
e exclusivamente às toxinas, uma vez que os sintomas de intoxicação
são similares aos efeitos da anoxia, e produção de amônia e
sulfetos. Os níveis e toxinas determinados não foram altos em
peixes, mas de qualquer modo, pequenas concentrações da toxina
foram achadas na musculatura, não apenas nas vísceras. Esses
valores de concentração de toxina são sempre menores na
musculatura e variam de espécime para espécime. A toxina em peixes,
não é absorvida via guelras, mas são assimiladas quando injetadas.
Pouco se sabe a respeito da dinâmica da toxina na musculatura dos
peixes, mas acredita-se que deve haver uma flutuação dos seus níveis
durante o período de clearence. Esses
níveis de toxina medidos nos crustáceos e peixes não causam
efeitos adversos em humanos, que raramente consomem produtos com
altos níveis de toxina, apesar de que esses números podem subir
quando há concomitantemente consumo de água contaminada. Considerando
a concentração de 1
µg/l como limite tolerável , os alimentos que poderiam constituir
maior risco à saúde humana são os moluscos bivalves. REFERÊNCIAS
BIBLIOGRÁFICAS Abe,
T., Lawson, T., Weyers, J.D.B. and Codd, G.A. (1996). Microcystin-LR
inhibits photosynthesis of Phaseolus vulgaris primary leaves:
implications for current spray irrigation practice. New Phytologist
133, 651-658. Amorim
A & Vasconcelos VM (1998). Dynamics
of microcystins in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Toxicon (in
press). Bartram,
J., Vapnek, J.C., Jones, G., Bowling, L., Falconer, I. and Codd, G.A.
(1999). Implementation of management plans. In: Toxic Cyanobacteria
in Water. A Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring
and Management. I. Chorus and J. Bartram (eds.). Published for the
World Health Organisation by E. and F.N. Spon, London. pp. 211-234. Beasley
VR, Coppock RW, Simon J, Ely R, Buck WB & Corley RA (1953).
Apparent blue-green algal poisoning in swine subsequent to ingestion
of a bloom dominated by Anabaena spiroides. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association, 182: 413-414. Beattie,
K.A., Kaya, K. and Codd, G.A. (2000). The cyanobacterium Nodularia
PCC 7804, of freshwater origin, produces [L-Har2]nodularin.
Phytochemistry 54, 57-61. Beattie,
K.A., Kaya, K., Sano, T. and Codd, G.A. (1998). Three
dehydrobutyrine-containing microcystins from Nostoc. Phytochemistry
47, 1289-1292. Bell,
S.G. and Codd, G.A. (1996). Detection, analysis and risk assessment
of cyanobacterial toxins. In: Agricultural Chemicals and the
Environment. No 5. Eds. R.E. Hester and R.M. Harrison. The Royal
Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 109-122. BICUDO,
Carlos E. M. e BICUDO, Rosa M. T. Algas de Águas Continentais
Brasileiras. Fundação Brasileira para o Desenvolvimento das Ciências,
São Paulo, 1970. Bossenmaier
EF, Olson TA, Rueger ME & Marshall NH (1954). Some field and
laboratory aspects of duck sickness at White water lake, Manitoba.
Nineteenth North American Wildlife Conference: 163-175. Bury,
N.R., Codd, G.A., Wendelaar Bonga, S.E. and Flik, G. (1998). Fatty
acids from the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa with potent
inhibitory effects on fish gill Na+/K+-ATPase
activity. Journal of Experimental Biology 201, 81-89. Bury,
N.R., Eddy, F.B. and Codd, G.A. (1996). Stress responses of brown
trout, Salmo trutta L. to the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa.
Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality 11, 187-194. Bury,
N.R., McGeer, J.C., Eddy, F.B. and Codd, G.A. (1997). Liver damage
in brown trout, Salmo trutta L., and rainbow trout, Oncorhyncus
mykiss (Walbaum) following administration of the cyanobacterial
hepatotoxin microcystin-LR via the dorsal aorta. Journal of Fish
Diseases 20, 209-215. Bury,
N.R., Newlands, A.D., Eddy, F.B. and Codd, G.A. (1998). In vivo and
in vitro intestinal transport of H-3-microcystin-LR, a
cyanobacterial toxin, in rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss). Aquatic
Toxicology 42, 139-148. Carmichael
WW & Gorham PR (1977). Factors
affecting the toxicity and animal susceptibility of Anabaena
flos-aquae (Cyanophyta) blooms. Journal of Phycology, 13: 97-101. Celada
JD, Carral JM, Gaudioso VR, Termino C & Fernandez R (1986).
Repoblaciones astacícolas en la Península Ibérica:
consideraciones y líneas metodológicas generales. Informes Técnicos,
Gobierno Vasco, 4: 16-37. Codd,
G.A. (1994). Blue-green algal toxins: water-borne hazards to health.
In: Water and Public Health. Eds. A.M.B. Golding, N. Noah and R.
Stanwell-Smith. Smith-Gordon, London, 271-278. Codd,
G.A. (1995). Cyanobacterial toxins:occurrence, properties and
biological significance. Water Science and Technology 32, 149-156. Codd,
G.A. (1996). Awareness of cyanobacterial or algal blooms at the
Premonstratensian Monastery of the Green Loch, Soulseat, Scotland
from the Twelfth Century and cattle poisonings at this location
eight hundred years later. Harmful Algae News No. 15, 4-5. Codd,
G.A. (1998). Cyanobacterial blooms and toxins in fresh-, brackish
and marine waters. In: Harmful Algae. Proceedings of the VIII
International Conference on Harmful Algae, Vigo, Spain. B.
Reguera, J. Blanco, M.L. Fernandez and T. Wyatt (eds.). Xunta
de Galicia and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO,
Santiago de Compostela, Spain. pp. 13-17. Codd,
G.A. (1999). Cyanobacterial blooms and their toxins: a history of
awareness, regressions and advances. The Phycologist 53, 2-4. Codd,
G.A. (1999). Cyanobacterial toxins: their occurrence in aquatic
environments and significance to health. In: Marine Cyanobacteria.
Eds. L. Charpy and A.W.D. Larkum, Bulletin de l'Institut Océanographique,
Monaco no. Spécial
19, Monaco, pp. 483-500. Codd,
G.A. and Bell, S.G. (1996). The Occurrence and Fate of Blue-Green
Algal Toxins. National Rivers Authority R & D Report No. 29.
HMSO, London, 30 pp. Codd,
G.A. and Bell, S.G. (1998). Toxic cyanobacteria: the global view.
In: Proceedings of the Second Australian Water and Wastewater
Association WaterTECH Meeting, Brisbane, April 27-28. Australian
Water and Wastewater Association, Artamon, NSW, Australia, pp. 1-14. Codd,
G.A., Bell, S.G., Kaya, K., Ward, C.J., Beattie, K.A. and Metcalf,
J.S. (1999). Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human
health. European Journal of Phycology 34, 405-415. Codd,
G.A., Chorus, I. and Burch, M. (1999). Design of monitoring
programmes. In: Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water. A Guide to their
Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management. I. Chorus and
J. Bartram (eds.). Published for the World Health Organisation by E.
and F.N. Spon, London. pp. 313-328. Codd,
G.A., Jefferies, T.M., Keevil, C.W. and Potter, E. (eds) (1994).
Detection Methods for Cyanobacterial Toxins. The Royal Society of
Chemistry, Cambridge, 191 pp. Codd,
G.A., Metcalf, J.S. and Beattie, K.A. (1999). Retention of
Microcystis aeruginosa and microcystin by salad lettuce (Lactuca
sativa) after spray irrigation with water containing cyanobacteria.
Toxicon 37, 1181-1185. Codd,
G.A., Steffensen, D.A., Burch, M.D. and Baker, P.D. (1994). Toxic
blooms of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in Lake Alexandrina,
South Australia - learning from history. Australian Journal of
Marine and Freshwater Research 45, 731-736. Codd,
G.A., Ward, C.J. and Bell, S.G. (1997). Cyanobacterial toxins:
occurrence, modes of action, health effects and exposure routes. In:
Applied Toxicology. Approaches through Basic Science. Archives of
Toxicology Supplement 19. Eds. J.P. Seiler and E. Vilanova.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 399-410. Codd,
G.A., Ward, C.J., Beattie, K.A. and Bell, S.G. (1999). Widening
perceptions of the occurrence and significance of cyanobacterial
toxins. In: The Phototrophic Prokaryotes. G.A. Peschek, W. Löffelhardt
and G. Schmetterer (eds.). Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York. pp.
623-632. Dillenberg
HO & Dehnel MK (1960). Toxic waterbloom in Saskatchewan, 1959.
Canadian Medical Association Journal, 83: 1151-1154. Edwards,
A.C., Twist, H. and Codd, G.A. (2000). Assessing the impact of
terrestrially derived phosphorus on flowing water systems. Journal
of Environmental Quality 29, 117-124. Eriksson
JE, Meriluoto JAO & Lindholm T (1989). Accumulation of a peptide
toxin from the cyanobacterium Oscillatoria agardhii in the fresh
water mussel Anodonta cygnea. Hydrobiologia, 183: 211-216. Falconer
IR, Choice A & Hosja W (1992). Toxicity of edible mussels (Mytilus
edulis) growing naturally in an estuary during a water bloom of the
blue-green alga Nodularia spumigena. Environmental Toxicology and
Water Quality, 7: 119-123. Falconer,
I.R., Bartram, J., Chorus, I., Kuiper-Goodman, T., Utkilen, H.,
Burch, M. and Codd, G.A. (1999). Safe levels and practices. In:
Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water. A Guide to their Public Health
Consequences, Monitoring and Management. I. Chorus and J. Bartram
(eds.). Published for the World Health Organisation by E. and F.N.
Spon, London. pp. 155-178. FERNANDES,
Luciano F. Apostila para a Disciplina de Botânica Criptogâmica. S/ed. Ferreira
F (1994). Caracterização bioquímica de cianotoxinas produzidas
por duas espécies de cianobactérias (Microcystis aeruginosa e
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae) provenientes da albufeira de Crestuma-Lever
(Rio Douro). Master's thesis, Faculdade de Ciências do Porto,
Porto. Francis
G (1878). Poisonous Australian lake. Nature,
18: 11-12. Gorham
P & Carmichael WW (1988). Hazards of freshwater blue-greens (cyanobacteria).
In: Lembi CA & Waaland JR (Editors), Algae and Human Affairs.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 403-431. Harding,
W.R., Rowe, N., Wessels, J.C, Beattie, K.A. and Codd, G.A. (1995).
Death of a dog attributed to the cyanobacterial (blue-green algal)
hepatotoxin nodularin in South Africa. Journal of the South African
Veterinary Association 66, 256-259. Humble,
A.V., Gadd, G.M. and Codd, G.A. (1997). Binding of copper and zinc
to three cyanobacterial microcystins quantified by differential
pulse polarography. Water Research 31, 1679-1686. JOLY,
Aylton Brandão. Botânica:
Introdução à Taxionomia Vegetal. Cia. Editora Nacional, São
Paulo, 1991. 10ª edição, 778p. Kaya,
K., Sano, T., Beattie, K.A. and Codd, G.A. (1996). Nostocyclin, a
novel 3-amino-6-hydroxy-2-piperidone-containing cyclic depsipeptide
from the cyanobacterium Nostoc sp.. Tetrahedron Letters 37,
6725-6728. Lampert
W (1982). Further studies on the inhibitory effects of the toxic
blue-green Microcystis aeruginosa on the filtering rate of
zooplankton. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie, 95: 207-220. Lawton,
L.A., Edwards, C., Beattie, K.A., Pleasance, S., Dear, G.J. and Codd,
G.A. (1995). Isolation and characterization of microcystins from
laboratory cultures and environmental samples of Microcystis
aeruginosa and from an associated animal toxicosis. Natural Toxins
3, 50-57. Lindholm
T, Eriksson JE & Meriluoto JAO (1989). Toxic cyanobacteria and
water quality problems - examples from a eutrophic lake Åland,
South West Finland. Water Research, 23: 481-486. Main
DC, Berry PH, Peet RL & Robertson JP (1977). Sheep mortalities
associated with the blue-green alga Nodularia spumigena. Australian
Veterinary Journal, 53: 578-581. Matthiensen,
A., Yunes, J.A. and Codd, G.A. (1999). Ocorrência,
distribuição e toxicidade de cianobactérias no estuário da Lagoa
dos Patos, RS. Revista Brasileira die Biologia 59, 361-376. Metcalf,
J.S. and Codd, G.A. (2000). Microwave oven and boiling waterbath
extraction of hepatotoxins from cyanobacterial cells. FEMS
Microbiology Letters 184, 241-246. Metcalf,
J.S., Beattie, K.A., Pflugmacher, S. and Codd, G.A. (2000).
Immuno-crossreactivity and toxicity assessment of conjugation
products of the cyanobacterial toxin, microcystin-LR. FEMS
Microbiology Letters 189, 155-158. Metcalf,
J.S., Bell, S.G and Codd, G.A. (2000). Production of novel
polyclonal antibodies against the cyanobacterial toxin
microcystin-LR and their application for the detection and
quantification of microcystins and nodularin. Water Research 34,
2761-2769. Metcalf,
J.S., Hyenstrand, P., Beattie, K.A. and Codd, G.A. (2000). Effects
of physicochemical variables and cyanobacterial extracts on the
immunoassay of microcystin-LR by two ELISA kits. Journal of Applied
Microbiology 89, 532-538. Mez,
K., Beattie, K.A., Codd, G.A., Hanselmann, K., Hauser, B., Naegeli,
H. and Preisig, H.R. (1997). Identification of a microcystin in
benthic cyanobacteria linked to cattle deaths on alpine pastures in
Switzerland. European Journal of Phycology 32, 111-117. Nagata
S, Soutome H, Tsutsumi T, Hasegawa A, Sejikima M, Sugamata M, Harada
K-I, Suganuma M & Ueno Y (1995). Novel
monoclonal antibodies against microcystin and their protective
activity for hepatotoxicity. Natural
Toxins, 3: 78-86. Nauwerck
A (1962). Zur Systematik und Okologie portugiesischer Planktonalgen.
Boletim
da Sociedade Broteriana, XV: 7-56. Nishiwaki-Matsushima
R, Ohta T, Nishiwaki S, Suganuma M, Kohyama K, Ishikawa T,
Carmichael WW & Fujiki H (1992). Liver
cancer promotion by the cyanobacterium cyclic peptide toxin
microcystin-LR. Journal of Cancer Research and Clinical Oncology,
118: 420-424. Oberemm,
A., Becker, J., Codd, G.A. and Steinberg, C. (1999). Effects of
cyanobacterial toxins and aqueous crude extracts of cyanobacteria on
the development of fish and amphibians. Environmental Toxicology 14,
77-88. Oliveira
MR & Monteiro MT (1992). "Blooms" de Cyanophyceae na
albufeira da Aguieira - efeitos na qualidade da água e no
zooplanton. Relatório Técnico e Científico do INIP, Lisboa, 61:
57. Oliveira
MR & Monteiro MT (1993). Caracterização biológica do sistema
de abastecimento de água a Évora. Relatório Técnico e Científico
do INIP. Lisboa,
68: 43. Oliveira
MR (1984). Contribuição para o estudo das comunidades fitoplanctónicas
das albufeiras a sul do Tejo. Boletim do Instituto Nacional de
Investigação em Pescas, 11: 3-27. Oliveira
MR (1991). Eutrofização do rio Guadiana. "Blooms" de
Cyanophyceae e influência na ictiofauna. Relatório Técnico e
Científico do INIP, 8: 27. Oliveira
S (1995). Influência de Microcystis aeruginosa Kutz. Emend Elkin na
Biologia de Procambarus clarkii Girard. Master's thesis, Faculdade
de Ciências do Porto, Porto. Pflugmacher,
S., Codd, G.A. and Steinberg, C.E.W. (1999). Effects of the
cyanobacterial toxin microcystin-LR on detoxication enzymes in
aquatic plants. Environmental Toxicology 14, 111-115. Pflugmacher,
S., Wiegand, C., Beattie, K.A., Codd, G.A. and Steinberg, C.E.W.
(1998). Uptake of the cyanobacterial hepatotoxin microcystin-LR by
aquatic macrophytes. Journal of Applied Botany 72, 228-232. Pflugmacher,
S., Wiegand, C., Oberemm, A., Beattie, K.A., Krause, E., Codd, G.A.
and Steinberg, C.E.W. (1998). Identification of an enzymatically
formed glutathione conjugate of the cyanobacterial hepatotoxin
microcystin-LR: the first step in detoxication. Biochimica
et Biophysica Acta 1425, 527-533. Porter
KG & McDough P (1984). The energetic cost of response to
blue-green algal filaments by cladocerans. Limnology and
Oceanography, 29: 365-369. Pouria,
S., de Andrade, A., Barbosa, J., Cavalcanti, R.L., Barreto, V.T.S.,
Ward, C.J., Preiser, W., Poon, G.K., Neild, G.H. and Codd, G.A.
(1998). Fatal microcystin intoxication in haemodialysis unit in
Caruaru, Brazil. The Lancet 352, 21-26. Ramos
A & Pereira T (1981). Um novo Astaciadae para a fauna portuguesa:
Procambarus clarkii (Girard 1852). Boletim do Instituto Nacional de
Investigação de Pescas, 6: 37-47. Sampaio
J (1933). Subsídios para o estudo das cianófitas portuguesas.
Anais da Faculdade de Ciências do Porto, XVIII: 142-153. Sano,
T., Beattie, K.A., Codd, G.A. and Kaya, K. (1998). Two (Z)-dehydrobutyrine-containing
microcystins from a hepatotoxic bloom of Oscillatoria agardhii from
Soulseat Loch, Scotland. Journal of Natural Products 61, 851-853. Santos
MF & Mesquita JF (1986). The
culture collection of algae of the Department of Botany, University
of Coimbra. Boletim
da Sociedade Broteriana, Série 2, 59: 353-373. Scott
WE (1991). Occurrence and significance of toxic cyanobacteria in
Southern Africa. Water Science and Technology, 23: 175-180. Skulberg
OM, Codd GA & Carmichael WW (1984). Toxic blue-green algal
blooms in Europe: a growing problem. Ambio, 13: 244-247. SMITH,
Gilbert M. Botânica Criptogâmica. Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian,
Lisboa, 1987. 4ª edição, vol.1, 530 p. Tencalla
F & Dietrich D (1997). Biochemical characterization of
microcystin toxicity to rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss).
Toxicon, 35: 583-595. Turner
PC, Gammie AJ, Hollinrake K & Codd GA (1990). Pneumonia
associated with contact with cyanobacteria. British Medical Journal,
300: 1440-1441. Twist,
H. and Codd, G.A. (1997). Degradation of the cyanobacterial
hepatotoxin, nodularin, under light and dark conditions. FEMS
Microbiology Letters 151, 83-88. Twist,
H., Edwards, A.C. and Codd, G.A. (1998). Algal growth responses to
water of contrasting tributaries of the River Dee, North-East
Scotland. Water Research 309, 2471-2479. Twist,
H., Edwards, A.C. and Codd, G.A.(1997). A novel in-situ biomonitor
using alginate-immobilized algae (Scenedesmus) for the assessment of
eutrophication in flowing surface waters. Water Research 31,
2066-2072. Ueno
Y, Nagata S, Tsutsumi T, Hasegawa A, Yoshida F, Sutajjit M, Mebs D
& Vasconcelos V (1997). Survey
of microcystins in environmental water by a highly sensitive
immunoassay based on monoclonal antibody. Natural Toxins, 4:
271-276. Vasconcelos
VM (1990). Preliminary results of a study on the impact of toxic and
nontoxic cyanobacteria on some freshwater microcrustacean species. Crustaceana,
59: 316-318. Vasconcelos
VM (1991). Impacte de estirpes tóxicas e não tóxicas da cianobactéria
Microcystis aeruginosa em espécies zooplanctónicas. Revista de
Biologia de la Universidad de Aveiro, 4: 211-221. Vasconcelos
VM (1993). Toxicity of cyanobacteria of lakes of North and Central
Portugal. Ecological implications. Verhandlungen Internationale
Vereinigung Limnologie, 25: 694-697. Vasconcelos
VM (1994). Toxic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in Portuguese
freshwaters. Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie, 130: 439-451. Vasconcelos
VM (1995). Toxicologia de Cianobactérias. Distribuição de
cianobactérias tóxicas e suas toxinas em águas doces portuguesas.
Bioacumulação em bivalves. Doctoral thesis, FCUP, Universidade do
Porto, Porto. Vasconcelos
VM (1995). Uptake
and depuration of the peptide toxin microcystin-LR in the mussel
Mytilus galloprovincialis. Aquatic Toxicology, 32: 227-237. Vasconcelos
VM, Sivonen K, Evans WR, Carmichael WW & Namikoshi M (1995). Isolation
and characterization of microcystins (heptapeptide hepatotoxins)
from Portuguese strains of Microcystis aeruginosa Kutz. emed Elekin.
Archiv fuer Hydrobiologie, 134: 295-305. Vasconcelos
VM, Sivonen K, Evans WR, Carmichael WW & Namikoshi M (1996). Hepatotoxic
microcystin diversity in cyanobacterial blooms collected in
Portuguese freshwaters. Water
Research, 30: 2377-2384. VASCONCELOS,
V.M. Cyanobacterial toxins in Portugal: effects on aquatic animals
and risk for human health. Braz
J Med Biol Res, March 1999, Volume 32(3) 249-254 Ward,
C.J. and Codd, G.A. (1999). Comparative toxicity for four
microcystins of different hydrophobicities to the protozoan,
Tetrahymena pyriformis. Journal of Applied Microbiology 86, 874-882. Ward,
C.J., Beattie, K.A., Lee, E.Y.C. and Codd, G.A. (1997). Colorimetric
protein phosphatase inhibition assay of laboratory strains and
natural blooms of cyanobacteria: comparisons with high performance
liquid chromatrophy. FEMS Microbiology Letters 153, 465-473. Ward,
C.J., Lee, E.Y.C., Beattie, K.A. and Codd, G.A. (1998). Colorimetric
protein phosphatase inhibition assay for microcystins and nodularin
in laboratory cultures and natural blooms of cyanobacteria. In: see
Codd (1998). pp. 541-544. Warhurst,
A.M., Raggett, S.L., McConnachie, G.L., Pollard, S.J.T., Chipofya,
V. and Codd, G.A. (1997). Adsorption of the cyanobacterial
hepatotoxin microcystin-LR by a low cost activated carbon from the
seed husks of the pan-tropical tree, Moringa oleifera. The Science
of the Total Environment. 207, 207-211. Watanabe
MF & Oishi S (1980). Toxicities of Microcystis aeruginosa
collected from some lakes, reservoirs, ponds and moat in Tokyo and
adjacent regions. Japanese Journal of Limnology, 41: 5-9. Wiegand,
C., Pflugmacher, S., Oberemm, A., Meems, N., Beattie, K.A.,
Steinberg, C.E.W. and Codd, G.A. (1999). Uptake and effects of
microcystin-LR on detoxication enzymes of early life stages of the
Zebra fish (Danio rerio). Environmental Toxicology 14, 89-95. Yunes,
J.S., Matthiensen, A., Parise, M., Salomon, P.S., Raggett, S.L.,
Beattie, K.A. and Codd, G.A. (1998). Microcystis aeruginosa growth
stages and the occurrence of microcystins in the Patos Lagoon,
Southern Brazil. In: see Codd (1998). pp. 18-21. Yunes,
J.S., Niencheski, L.F.H., Salomon, P.S., Parise, M., Beattie, K.A.,
Raggett, S.L. and Codd, G.A. (1998). Effect of nutrient of balance
and physical factors on blooms of toxic cyanobacteria in the Patos
Lagoon, Southern Brazil. Vereinigung Internationale für
Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie 26, 1796-1800. Zweigenbaum,
J.A., Henion, J.D., Beattie, K.A., Codd, G.A. and Poon, G.K. (2000).
Direct analysis of microcystins by microbore liquid chromatography
electrospray ionization ion-trap tanden mass spectrometry. Journal
of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 23, 723-733. |